Communication and Language Needs Wishes Essay

Show how to find out an individual communication and language needs wishes and preferences Finding out the way an individual prefers to communicate can be done in two ways: direct or indirect. The talk of these individuals is very slow and intentional. They do not like loud, fast, and excessively aggressive talk. In addition, they concentrate more on the facts and figures, rather than just assumptions. If you are in conversation with an indirect communicator, you need to understand that you should have proof for backing up your suggestions, answers, and views. Individuals who are direct talk more clamorously and rapidly than indirect communicators. They take risks easily, are aggressively self-assured, and are related to ‘type A’ personalities. If you are in conversation with a direct communicator, just ensure that you get to the point straightaway, be confident about what you say, provide solid instances of your achievements, and be alert when you talk. The direct method is by speaking to the services users on face to face or asking questions, observing what they say and how they say The Indirect method: is by reading through the services users record and their care plan or by speaking their relatives and also inquiring from their colleagues. . 2.2 demonstrate communication methods that meet an individual communication need wishes and preferences. Written communications, lip reading and body language method for these individual that cannot hear. And also verbal and non verbal communication to an individual who can hear or see. Verbal and touch for Braille individual who is blind but not deaf. 2.3 Show how and when to seek advice about communication Seek advise by speaking to the line manager or professional bodies like nurse, doctors and colleagues if you do not understand what your service user saying or in looking unwell. If you cannot find or understand the records of your services users already provided to them seek advice from the team manager or colleagues. 3.1idenfiy barriers to affective communication There are reasons that can hinder affective communication. For example Poor health and mental health the main barrier to affective communication is being ill makes it difficult for people to effectively express them and and confidences and self esteem. Background: Clients with chronic and terminal disease frequently do not talk to their physicians about end-of-life care. Interventions to improve this communication have generally been unsuccessful, suggesting that important barriers to this communication must exist Culture and family affects the way people use the method of communication for example eye contact may not be as common in some culture as in others may be interpreted differently. Aggression: being aggressive while communicating makes diffuclt to express your point and to be listened and it applies to both the clients and the carer. Emtonalil diffuclties:when people experience a break up in long term relationship or receive news about death of loved ones they may become confused or uncontrollably upset and this

A Business Marketing Plan: Hunger Solution & Training Company Essay

Introduction This paper contains a marketing plan of a small production company that is earmarked to be established in Gardnerville, the suburb of Monrovia, Liberia, West Africa, my country of origin. The business which is to be named â€Å"Hunger Solution & Training Company† derived its name from the decade-long civil war that existed in Liberia that resulted into most of the citizens and other nationals of this country being internally displaced. These people which comprise of men, women, children, and other nationals, moved into the small capital of the country and its suburbs, making it very congested in terms of population. Others fled into neighboring countries like Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Guinea, and Togo. Due to the high rate of unemployment, most of the domestic farmers and others who were engaged in other businesses for survivals are unable to afford two or three sumptuous meals a day, leaving them and their children poor and hungry. Hunger Solution & Training Company is a not-for-profit Cassava-Powder Production Company founded on January 13, 2012. The Company produces cassava powder, a food that is widely consumed by 99% of the Liberian population in the country. Since cassava is a major crop in the country and there is a growing demand from its consuming public, the purpose of this Company is to cater to this hunger need of the growing number of the Liberian populace as well as those who are unemployed. The company will distribute its product to neighboring Ghana, Nigeria, and Togo who are users of this product and also hosting most of the Liberian citizens as refugees. The Company will also train and empower local farmers to re-use their farmlands, engage in large-scale farming, and make them to bring their produce to the company to be changed into cassava powder for marketing and distribution. Cassava Powder or cassava is the third-largest source of food carbohydrates in the tropics. It is a major staple food in the developing world, providing a basic diet for around 500 million people. It is one of the most drought-tolerant crops, capable of growing on marginal soils. Nigeria is the world’s largest producer of cassava (Faintuch Ceccenello, I. I., 2011). In Ghana, cassava Powder can be made into (fufu) and consumed with all kinds of soup: palm-butter soup, pepper soup, okra soup, and etcetera. In Liberia, cassava can be used to in different ways; it is made into fufu, farina, first solid food for babies, as well as achekeh. It can be used with many ingredients that add up to nourish the body. As you delve deeper into the paper, you will read about the strategies used to explain the product in terms of its primary characteristics, service component, and how it can be used for enhancement. You will read how the product can be expanded to product line with regards to the depth and breadth of the line. You have an insight of how the core business may change in response to industry and market changes and how this product can create an image in the mind of its consumers and entrepreneurs. You will further read about domestic and global product branding, pricing, and distribution strategies for cassava powder product and training initiated by Hunger Solution & Training Company. Further discussion will determine, detail, and examine how these branding, pricing, and distribution strategies support the cassava product and training services of the Company. A distribution channel will also be highlighted analyzing and identifying the wholesaler, retailer, and distributor relationship. If the strategy will be considered push or pull, it will be justified through the rationale that will be outlined in the paper. As you will advance further, you will discern how the distribution strategy fits the product and training aspect of the Company with regards to service, target market, and the Company’s overall marketing strategy. The Company will ensure that its product and training are essential to the needs of the Liberian consuming public as well as their manpower development. You will also read about the Company’s advertising strategy and how this approach will bring into line the Company’s marketing goals. It will be determined how effectively the advertising will be measured and how the different promotional strategies relevant to the Company advertising will be utilized. Further discussion will establish the best marketing research approach used to measure customer satisfaction with the Company’s product (cassava powder) and training service initiated to train farmer in implementing large-scale farming. It will be explained how gaps in customer expectations and experiences will be addressed by the marketing wing of the Company, using the high knowledge and proficiency of experienced and well-schooled people in marketing management. Type of Product and its Primary Characteristics This marketing plan will also engulf vision of the company, its mission statement, product and services, and underlying factor of the business. The plans will also contain a vivid description of the company in terms of its business product as well as SWOT analysis to demonstrate its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. A market target segmentation of customers, strategic mission, and its foreign expansion will be made to give a clear picture how the business will implement its transactions in and out of the country. Vision Statement Hunger Solution & Training Company determines to provide its customers with cassava powder that will be used for food consumption and empower its local farmers and others to engage into re-using their farm lands for growing cassava that will be made into cassava powder and to carry out large-scale farming. Mission Statement The mission of Hunger Solution & Training Company is to provide cassava powder to its customers for consumption in a safe and quiet way. The Company will also empower local farmers by training them and others to re-use their farmlands for growing cassava crop that will be brought to the Company for cassava powder making. Foreign Market and Rationale Since the Company is ideally located in Gardnerville, the suburb of Monrovia, it has resolved to extend its operations to neighboring Ghana, Togo, and Nigeria respectively. The major reason for this extension emanates from that fact that most of the Liberians nationals that fled the decade-long civil war migrated to these countries as refugees and are unemployed, living on subsistent businesses. Besides, the people of these countries (Ghana, Nigeria, and Togo) widely use plantain powder product, yam powder product, and cassava powder product in various ways for consumption. Management Team The Company is run and managed by four persons: John Garven, General Manager, Vonyee Garven, Chief Financial Officer, and Immanuel Garven, Director for Training and Development. Devon Okoro is the Marketing manager, while 25 other workers work in various sectors of the company. Market Segment Hunger Solution & Training Company (HSTC) targets all sectors of people who are found in Monrovia and its suburbs. It also concentrates on those in the rural areas where there are enough land to carry out large-scale farming. It also targets other nationals like the Nigerians, Ghanaians, Togolese, as well as Hispanic populations who are consumers of this product and living in Liberia. The Company’s product will also cater to women, men, children as well as babies. Since the country is underdeveloped and indigent, many of its vast unemployed citizens live on less than an American dollar ($1.00 USD) per day. Besides, the civil fracas contributed largely to deplorable living conditions of its people. The Company also targets to train farmers who migrated from the rural areas of the country and displaced in Monrovia as a result the civil war, and those unemployed wanting to engage in large-scale farming. SWOT Analysis The spirit of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) of the company is defined relative to other providers in the market, and how the company can identify and capitalize on its strengths, weaknesses, as well as exploring opportunities that can boost the company capabilities and weaknesses that could lead to its collapse, if not worked upon ( Powerhouse Marketing Plans, 2004). In this regards, the following are considered as SWOT analysis of Hunger Solution & Training Company: Strengths: The Company is given several thousand acres of land by government and townspeople in many of the country’s rural towns and villages for large-scale farming. It has a lot of farming machines, like tractors, equipment for sloughing the land, etcetera. There are other tools necessary to enhance smooth farming. It also has volunteer workers who will work for six months without pay. The management team is skilled in the area of business and has the capability to trains others to be productive. The company has donors that cater to 75% of its financial needs. Due to its supportive concept of alleviating the government to reduce the high rate of illiteracy, it is being subsidized by government. Weaknesses: The Company does not have vehicles that are accessible to the bad road condition in terms of conveying its product into some parts of the rural areas as well as its neighboring countries. As the results goods are delayed. Most of its workers are not trained as distributing and operating agents. Opportunities There is an availability of donor organizations in the United States and other developed countries in alacrity to sponsor such venture. NGO’s (non-governmental organizations) are present in the countries wanting to sponsor companies that have such programs. Threats: Bad road condition during the rainy season thwarts the efforts of good delivery of the company’s products. Another disadvantage that is envisaged is government regulations and the willingness of the internally displaced people to go back and settle into their counties of origin. Industry Analysis It is researched and understood that business of this nature is most time not taken on by a minute group of entrepreneurs but rather the government, which creates the means for multiple sponsorship that vehemently reduce its high rate of unemployment and contribute largely to replenishing its economy. The chief food product (cassava product) is a good business that has a huge competitive advantage in other countries that have this product as their chief product of consumption. Form this research survey, it is noticed that there is a need for the establishment of this company in Liberia since the country has none. Products and Services The selection of this product and training by â€Å"Hunger Solution & Training Company† is contingent upon my desire to enable everyone to at least afford a day’s meal and to empower people who are unemployed to get a job to do. In this regards, the company is considered as â€Å"light in darkness† for the Liberian people. The product is to be consumed by all of the people of Liberia including children as young as five months and to the elderly as old as eighty-five years. It offers a very cheap price that even the long-time unemployed workers can afford. Marketing Product # 2 Type of Product and its Primary Characteristics The selection of this product (cassava powder) and training by â€Å"Hunger Solution & Training Company† is contingent upon the desire to enable everyone to at least afford a day’s meal and to empower people who are unemployed to get a job to do. In this regards, the company is considered as â€Å"light in darkness† for the Liberian people. The product is consumed by all of the people of Liberia including children young as five months and to the elderly as old as eighty-five years. It offers a cheap price that even the long-time unemployed workers can afford. Beside the training program that is to be initiated and implemented by this company, it would specialize in the production of cassava powder. This product can be made into dumplings, fufu, stews, and gravies. The powder can also be made into bread, and milky pudding, similar to rice pudding. The major specialty it would offer is to create a good taste of preference to all that would use it to satisfy their consumption needs. The company will adapt to the improvement of quality standards so that maximum satisfaction is assured. Due to this, the company will also experiment with other new tenets of flavor that will enrich the taste of the original product, which will be made available to its consumers. An example would be cassava bread, milky pudding, gravies, stews and dumplings. Service Component of the Product Since a product is simply a marketing offering, that can be tangible or intangible and satisfy the consumption wants of the consumers, a service component of a product is the means that is devised to create interest in the mind of the consumer to purchase the product. This can be achieved through advertising the product on electronic or print media, or creating the awareness for purchasing. However, since the company is the sole producer and distributor of this product, it becomes a priority for the company to motivate and satisfy the needs of its consumers. In order to successfully implement this, the company must probe into complaints and dissatisfaction that will ensue from its customers. They must be given first preference and their complaints must be perfectly dealt with to assure them that without them the company will not exist. They will also be given discount like (buy three get one free); this will help to entice more customers including window shoppers and will give the company edge over other competitors. For the training aspect, free six-week training will be made available to those customers who will make the highest purchase of the product. Hence, the type of product that will be marketed by my company will be cassava powder, a product made from grinding dried cassava. This finished product can be made into fufu and other nutritional dish that can satisfy one’s hunger needs. In this regards, the company will become the chief distributors to wholesalers and retailers. There will also be a store operated by the company that will also carry out these sales. This product is one of the best sources of carbohydrates, nutrients that are used to nourish the body. Expansion of the Product to Product Line and Its Depth and Breadth of the Line â€Å"Hunger Solution & Training Company† does not only operate in the production of cassava product at affordable low cost, but also provide Organic Health Care food categorized as dumpling, milky pudding, cassava bread, as well as stews and gravies. The company’s media house offers tangibility of information and theses nutritional products that will go along with its chief product, the cassava powder. The free six-week training program for customers who will make the highest purchases in one month is advantageous for people who will be ready to engage in large-scale farming. Core Business Response to Industry and Market Changes If there is a change in business which may be a drop in sale that may result from market changes, the company may initiate downsizing and create a frictional job until these determining factors of the business are improved. Besides this, opportunities to explore that will contribute to improving the condition of the company’s sales; even in worsening situation will be initiated. Extension of this business will be geared at exploring opportunities that will yield diversification and staunch economic benefits as well as exploring changes that will epitomize response to industry and market changes. Conclusion A good marketing plan involves the use of several ingredients that form the mechanisms in which a person should be fortified with the understanding of the elements of marketing, in order to make a good decision. It is tenets of the company’s vision and mission, foreign market and management team, as well as its market segment and SWOT analysis. A good marketing plan engulfs marketing product which is the bait and tool a company or business entity uses to satisfy the needs and wants of its customers; it is the prerogative of the company to make this product attractive and affordable. As it highlights the service component of the product and how it can be expanded into the product line through its breadth and depth, it pivots core business in response to market changes that will result into diversification and economic benefits. References: Faintuch Cecconello, I. I. (2011). Systemic inflammation, J. J., Bortolotto, L. A., Marques, P. C., Faintuch, J. J., Franà §a, J. I., & and carotid diameter in obese patients: pilot comparative study with flaxseed powder and cassava powder. Nutrition Hospitalaria, 26(1), 208-213. Falade, K. O., & Akingbala, J. O. (2011). Utilization of Cassava for Food. Food Reviews International, 27(1), 51-83. doi:10.1080/87559129.2010.518296 Felgate, M., Fearne, A., Di Falco, S., & Garcia Martinez, M. (2012). Using supermarket loyalty card data to analyse the impact of promotions. International Journal of Market Research, 54(2), 221-240. doi:10.2501/IJMR Johnson, W. (2004). Powerhouse Marketing Plans: 14 Outstanding Real-life Plans and What You Can Learn from Them to Supercharge Your Own Campaigns. AMACOM Là ¼dicke, M. (2006). A Theory of Marketing: Outline of a Social Systems Perspective. University Of St. Gallen, Business Dissertations, 1-204. Marketing & distribution in India. (2000). India Economic Studies, 77. McDonald, M. (2008). Malcolm McDonald on Marketing Planning: Understanding Marketing Plans and Strategy. Kogan Page. , 26(1), 208-213. M. E., M. M. (2006). Marketer of the Year: Wendy Clark. B To B, 91(14), 12.

African American Women Speak Out Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

African American Women Speak Out - Essay Example African Americans in general have come a long way from the dark days of slavery; this is especially the case for women. There are so many challenges and issues that this group has faced over the year thus making it very difficult to summarize all this information in one piece. First of all, Black People were struggling with the revolutionary agenda and in order to garner support for their movement, most of the members of this party had to construct certain identities that were unique to the black person. Another issue that cropped up in this period was the fact that there high levels of Sexism in the Black Panther party. This was largely depicted by the Actions of the Party's leaders-Huey Newton and Bobby Seale. In a book Published by Doubleday "A taste of Power" by Elaine Brown (1994), the author describes her experiences as a member of the Black Panther party. Elaine Brown was brought up in a poor Black community but had the opportunity to access education.During her time in the Black Panther party, Elaine Brown, along with other women in the movement were largely interested in transforming African American welfare. These actions were the things that took up most of her time. Some of the activities that Ms. Brown focused on included increasing medical assistance to her community, provision of food assistance among many other aspects related to the social well being of her community. However the men in this party had a more radical approach to their coz. Most of them applied as doub le thronged approach in the revolutionary activities; there was the political dimension and the militant dimension. Leaders like Huey Newton and Bobby Seale wanted to create a defensive system for the Black people through military techniques. These ideas even permeated into the running of their daily activities. For instance, the Black Panther party used to publish a newspaper in which Elaine Brown was one of the editors. At one time, it happened that Brown (1994) had delayed with the newspaper's production by one hour. In response to this action, the tough disciplinarian Booby Seale sought to find out who had caused this delay. When it was revealed that the editing took longer than required, Seale commanded his subordinates to disciple Elaine Brown. They did this by flogging her with ten lashes on her back. Brown (1994) explains that while going through the beating, she was "burning with rage" at the actions of her leader Seale who seemed to be applying double standards in the administration of justice within this party. Within the Black Panther movement, women were expected to silently obey the words of the male leaders. Even the manner in which codes of practice were established in the Black Panther Party reflected this deeply engrained Sexism. No one was expected to vote or contribute to the rules governing the party. Instead, women were to listen and abide by the decisions made by their male counterparts. It is also interesting to note that within this party, there were no female leaders as all of them were predominantly male. This goes to show that women were almost invisible. To the men in top positions, women were seen as instruments that could be used to implement the party goals and nothing more. However, despite this seeming mistrust, on cannot overlook the fact that some women in the Black Panther Party contributed towards Black empowerment in their own silent way. One such case is the latter mentioned author who chose to change her society in whichever little way she could. Cleaver (1968) in his book Soul on Ice brings in a totally different dimension to the sentiments and feelings

Public-key cryptography and information security Essay

Public-key cryptography and information security - Essay Example Public Key Cryptography (PKC) uses a key with two elements, a "public key" and a "private key", for the implementation of an encryption algorithm that doesn't require two parties (sender and receiver) to first exchange a secret key in an attempt to carry out the process of communication. In this scenario, the public key part is used for encryption entirely at the receiver side, whose private key part is applied for decryption. However, in order to make this communication safe it is necessary to make sure that only the intended receiver is able to access the private part of the key. Moreover, this concept is also used in elegant implementation of digital signatures (Tschabitscher, 2011) and (Adleman, Rivest, Shamir, & Williamson, 2010). Public key cryptography is considered as extremely protected for the reason that it does not require a secret common key between the receiver and sender. However, other encryption methods and technologies that utilize a single common key to both decryp t and encrypt information depend mutually on both parties (sender and receiver) in order to make a decision about a key ahead of time exclusive of other parties finding what that key is (Kayne, 2011). The most important benefit of PKC is its excellent security and ease of use. In addition, PKC is very useful in implementing secure algorithms since there is need to have an identical key for both parties (sender and the receiver).

The Doctrine of Acte Clair in the Context of National Courts Research Paper

The Doctrine of Acte Clair in the Context of National Courts - Research Paper Example A national court can ask the CJ questions pertaining to the interpretation of the EU charter. It can also ask the CJ to give rulings on the interpretation of the Treaty and Acts of the EU institutions. The CJ can be asked questions on the validity of Acts of the EU institutions - not on the validity of the Treaty through, or be asked to give rulings on such Acts. In practice, as only the CJ can rule on the invalidity of EU law, any such question must be referred to it by the concerned national court. This function of the CJ is enshrined in the EU charter. Art 256(3) TFEU (Art 225(3)EC: Art 168(a) EEC) specifies the General court’s authority that it shall have the ‘†¦jurisdiction to hear and determine questions referred for a preliminary ruling under Art 267 TFEU, in specific areas†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Moreover, CJ can only interpret EU law. It cannot interpret national law nor pass comment on the compatibility of national law with EU law. A good example can be found in th e case of 6/64 Costa v ENEL [1964] ECR 585. If CJ is asked a question raising the compatibility of national law with EU law, it has the duty to reformulate the question into one just of EU law – see eg26/62 Van Gend en Loos [1963] ECR 1. In C221/89 ex p Factortame [1992] QB 680. Nevertheless, even though expressed in abstract terms, the CJ gives a clear ruling that UK law is incompatible with EU law. Additionally, the CJ can only rule on the interpretation of EU law, not on the application of it by the national court in the particular case. However, often the guidance given by the CJ is so specific that it equates to the application, for example as seen in C392/93 R v HM Treasury ex p BT[1996] ECR I 1631.

Current Ethical Issue in Business Paper Research

Current Ethical Issue in Business - Research Paper Example When Merrill Lynch put bad mortgages in hedge funds than sold them for a year with the promise of a return, the logic was the investors knew the risk. Lita Epstein (2007) explains: Merrill investors had no idea how bad its situation was until it finally came clean about its losses and took a $7.9 billion write-down on these risky securities, one of Wall Streets largest write-downs ever, plus another $463 million write-down of deal-related lending commitments for a total of $8.4 billion. (Epstein 2007). The result of Merrill Lynch and other hedge fund managers was Congress stepping in with new legislation. This means stricter laws and taxes in the United States and Europe. Merrill Lynch did not learn from their mistakes. Instead of operating in the United States and Europe, â€Å"Bank of America Merrill Lynch is helping to establish more than a dozen hedge funds in Asia as industry regulation grows tougher in America and Europe† (Cooper 2010). Clearly this suggests that Merrill Lynch cares more about a profit than the investor. The ground rules that manifested this situation were greed, deception, irresponsible borrowing, and portfolio importance. The hedge funds were there to make money by taking risks. The deception of transferring bad mortgages to the hedge fund created the situation. Irresponsible borrowing, a hedge fund can borrow up to thirty percent over their assets, led to defaulted mortgages. Finally the annual financial report had to meet certain goals to be acceptable to stockholders. The truth never had a chance. Merrill Lynch was guilty of defrauding their stockholders. Although after taking the write down no penalties were given, Merrill Lynch should have learned about the right way to run a hedge fund. The fact that Merrill Lynch wants to operate in Asia should make investors run. This company puts money and success over ethics and investors. This case scenario is not a good example of ethics. Investor should not trust their pennies, much

High and Simple Life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

High and Simple Life - Essay Example This paper is based on the argument that high life is better than simple life because the high status gives people the freedom to choose everything in life. A wealthy town life involving the accumulation of money and resources is better than a simple life. People in the high life status enjoy the freedom of choice in all aspects of life. One can choose where to live, how to live, with whom to live, what to eat, what to wear, what to drive, among other requirements of modern life. Having the freedom to make choices makes one powerful on their own rights and able to enjoy life to the fullest. In other words, simple life may just come automatically because it is controlled by the natural course of events. However, high life comes at a price. In the article, the author refers to a Sears advert campaign that informs the consumer about the â€Å"good life at a good price, guaranteed,† that Sears offers. This implies that no good life will come without incurring a monetary cost. Good life comes with good clothing, appliances and other elements that help to shape the outward appearance (Japp & Japp 544). Nature is the sole source of a good life. It is the nature that gives space for golf courses, vacations, playgrounds, dancing halls, among others. Nature also gives the materials necessary to build better houses and acquire all the necessary elements that are necessary for a good life full of fulfillment and happiness. Nature is treated as a sustainable resource that must be utilized and mined in order for good things to be acquired. In other words, in order for human desires to be attained, nature must be conquered and exploited in all ways possible. Technology, which is another important aspect of human pleasure, has also developed from nature (Japp & Japp 540).

Statistics are Misleading in the Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Statistics are Misleading in the Media - Essay Example Many of the unsuspecting readers are often oblivious of the fact that people creating and quoting statistics do have personal agendas and vested interests (Hodges 2). Thus most of the social statistics is often colored by such devious intentions. The journalists in their zeal for bolstering on the issue under consideration do tend to exaggerate or subdue the available statistical findings (Calif 2). Many a times the entities like governments, political parties and NGOs purposely furnish tainted statistical data and studies so as to accentuate or dilute a specific issue. Thus it is important for any discerning citizen to investigate the basic parameters surrounding a statistical quote that is the entity who created a statistical study (Best 27), the purpose for which a given statistical data was created (Best 28) and the manner in which a statistical research was carried out (Best 29). Sad, but true, many of the subscribers are mostly not so astute, systematic and methodical in their analysis of the statistics published in media and are therefore vulnerable to ending up with faulty perceptions, false notions and misguided views. It is really imperative to understand the dynamics by which statistics is exaggerated, downplayed or manipulated by the media to send a specific message to the masses. Many a statistical studies prefer to choose the samples as per their convenience (Best 52). The samples for statistical studies are often chosen by the media in a non scientific way and at random that go well with their limited budgetary resources. Hence such samples fail to represent the total population and do yield false conclusions. Besides the statisticians hired by the media houses are oft deficient in the expertise to wean out the mutations incorporated while sampling a population. There is no denying the fact that the statistical studies conducted in an academic environment are not bound by the compulsion to yield black and white results. It is a reality that if an academic study ends up with open ended conclusions, the researchers do prefer to leave them as such and never rush in to deduce faulty hypothesis. However, this is not always true so far as media reports are concerned. Most of the media reports by their very nature are expected and bound to give concrete conclusions underlying a statistical study. Thus when the journalists are pushed by their voracious readers to yield results, they often do not hesitate from culling out nonrealistic guesses from the available statistical figures (Best 32). In fact, to sensationalize their news reports, media houses even go to the extent of exaggerating or downplaying the results attributed to a given statistical study. If nothing else, commercial success is often too big a motivation to prevent them

Tools For Learning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Tools For Learning - Essay Example In this regard, it is arguable that any form of positive attribute to the students by all stakeholders is indispensable. According to Blakemore & Frith (2007), motivation is considered the most critical aspect of learning that every student is supposed to be subjected to. In weak areas of students, motivation is regarded as the first element of ensuring student’s success. Motivation is believed to influence, stimulate and expedite students’ effort to accomplish results. Educational psychologists argue that motivating students in the early childhood education may require inducement of intrinsic motivation that aims at making learning pleasurable, enjoyment and interesting. This can be attained by subjecting students in play, exploration as well as challenge. Nevertheless, extrinsic motivation is also considered ideal in that the students are subjected to reinforcements such as rewards. However, this has been refuted by some researchers arguing that the intrinsic motivation is more desirable and mostly results in better learning outcomes compared to extrinsic motivation. Motivation involves constellating beliefs, perceptions, interests and actions (Alfrey, 2003). Educators can use either motivation that focuses on cognitive behaviors like use of different strategies and monitoring students’ progress or non-cognitive aspect which involves focusing and changing students’ perception, beliefs and attitudes (Blakemore & Frith, 2007). In some instances, educators can decide to use both motivational strategies in the effort of enhancing effective learning. In situations where behavior is the focal point that currently determines student’s performance, reinforcements like those advocated by B.F. Skinner are endorsed. Positive reinforcements such as rewards are advocated for students with good behaviors that are considered ideal in determining students’ performance while

Our Earth Essay Example for Free

Our Earth Essay Our earth is made up 78 percent of water, and rest of it is land. Because of this, there is ample number of living organisms in land as well as water. It has plains, plateaus, mountains, valleys, deserts, forests, grasslands, oceans, seas, rivers, lakes etc. As there are various kinds of regions on earth, every region has its own kind of wild life as well as plant life. Earth has undergone a gradual change in its environment through its years of evolution. Our earth and its diverse environment: Plateaus, plains and valleys Plateaus: A plateau is a large highland area of fairly level land separated from surrounding land by steep slopes. Some plateaus, like the plateau of Tibet, lie between mountain ranges. Others are higher than surrounding land. Plateaus are widespread, and together with enclosed basins they cover about 45 percent of the Earths land surface. Plains: plains are broad, nearly level stretches of land that have no great changes in elevation. Plains are generally lower than the land around them; they may be found along a coast or inland. Coastal plains generally rise from sea level until they meet higher landforms such as mountains or plateaus. Inland plains may be found at high altitudes. Valleys: A valley is a hollow or surface depression of the earth bounded by hills or mountains, a natural trough in the earths surface, that slopes down to a stream, lake or the ocean, formed by water and/or ice erosion. Systems of valleys extend through plains, hills, and mountains. Rivers and streams flowing through valleys drain interior land regions to the ocean. At the bottom of many valleys is fertile soil, which makes excellent farmland. Most valleys on dry land are formed by running water of streams and rivers.

Extraction of Amylase Enzyme From Yam | Experiment

Extraction of Amylase Enzyme From Yam | Experiment Amylolytic enzymes are widely distributed in plant tissues, e.g. in storage tissues such as seeds and tubers and in vegetative organs such as leaves. There exist two types of amylases in some species of plants, (E.C.3.2.1.1; 1-4-ÃŽÂ ±-D-glucan glucohydrolase) and (E.C.3.2.1.2; 1-4-ÃŽÂ ²-D-glucan maltohydrolase) amylases [Thoma, J.A., J.E. Sprandlin and S. Dygert, 1971]. Beta-amylase (-1, 4-glucan maltohyrolase, E.C.3,2,1,2) is an exoamylase that attacks the non reducing ends of starches molecules, producing a-maltose and a limit dextrin as products [Thoma, J.A., J.E. Sprandlin and S. Dygert, 1971]. In starch-enriched tissues, ÃŽÂ ²-amylase may play a role in the mobilization of starch during germination or sprouting tubers [Greenwood, C.T. and E.A. Milne, 1968]. Many reports have been demonstrated that ÃŽÂ ²-amylase has a great commercial value in food and beverage industries. The enzyme is useful in structural studies of starch and glycogen. Marshal and Whelan [Marshall, J. et al 1973] report on the removal of any contaminating ÃŽÂ ²-glucosidase. The practical interest of ÃŽÂ ²-amylase was concentrated on its capacity to produce maltose syrups from starch [Biovin, P., 1997.]. ÃŽÂ ²-amylase has previously been purified and characterized from different types of plant sources and a few of microbial origin. In higher plants, the molecular characterization of ÃŽÂ ²-amylase has been carried out on enzyme purified from the organs enriched in starch such as sweet potato tubers [Balls, A.K.,1948, et al], leaves [Vikso-Nelson, A., et al 1997], bulbs [Dicko, M.H., et al, 2000], seeds of various cereal species such as barley [Shinke, R. et al 1971], wheat [Trachuk, R. et al 1966], rice [Okamato, K. and T. Akazawa, 1978] and other higher plants such as soybean [Gertler, A. and Y. Birk, 1965]. On the other hand, much less information is available on the purification and characterization of ÃŽÂ ²-amylase from root. The present study reports the pur ification of ÃŽÂ ²-amylase from Yam (Dioscorea esculenta) root to a pure state along with its characterization. Amylase is an enzyme that breaks starch down into sugar. Amylase is present in human saliva, where it begins the chemical process of digestion. Foods that contain much starch but little sugar, such as rice and potato, taste slightly sweet as they are chewed because amylase turns some of their starch into sugar in the mouth. The pancreas also makes amylase (alpha amylase) to hydrolyse dietary starch into disaccharides and trisaccharides which are converted by other enzymes to glucose to supply the body with energy. Plants and some bacteria also produce amylase. As diastase, amylase was the first enzyme to be discovered and isolated (by Anselme Payen in 1833). Specific amylase proteins are designated by different Greek letters. All amylases are glycoside drolases and act on ÃŽÂ ±-1,4-glycosidic bonds. It will start to denature at around 60C. Amylase digests not only carbohydrates but also dead white blood cells. For example, when you are low in amylase you are a candidate for abscesses (inflamed areas with pus but not bacteria). If you have a toothache and are being treated with antibiotics, but it doesnt go away, chances are you have an abscess. Amylase is involved in anti-inflammatory reactions such as those caused by the release of histamine and similar substances. The inflammatory response usually occurs in organs which are in contact with the outside world, i.e., the lungs and skin. These include skin problems such as psoriasis, eczema, hives and all types of herpes. Some lung problem including asthma and emphysema may require amylase plus other enzyme formulas depending on the particular ailment. There are many types of amylases, but of importance are: ÃŽÂ ±-amylase, ÃŽÂ ²-amylase and glucoamylase. A diagram of an amylase molecule from human saliva. 1.1 ÃŽÂ ²Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ­ Amylase (EC 3.2.1.2) (alternate names: 1,4-ÃŽÂ ±-D-glucan maltohydrolase; glycogenase; saccharogen amylase) Another form of amylase, ÃŽÂ ²-amylase is also synthesized by bacteria, fungi, and plants. Working from the non-reducing end, ÃŽÂ ²-amylase catalyzes the hydrolysis of the second ÃŽÂ ±-1,4 glycosidic bond, cleaving off two glucose units (maltose) at a time. During the ripening of fruit, ÃŽÂ ²-amylase breaks starch into maltose, resulting in the sweet flavor of ripe fruit. Both ÃŽÂ ±-amylase and ÃŽÂ ²-amylase are present in seeds; ÃŽÂ ²-amylase is present prior to germination, whereas ÃŽÂ ±-amylase and proteases appear once germination has begun. Cereal grain amylase is key to the production of malt. Many microbes also produce amylase to degrade extracellular starches. Animal tissues do not contain ÃŽÂ ²-amylase, although it may be present in microrganisms contained within the digestive tract. 1.1.2 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM Digestion of carbohydrate begins in the mouth by the action of salivary ÃŽÂ ±-amylase.Only limited digestion of carbohydrate occurs, however, because salivary ÃŽÂ ±-amylase is denatured in the stomach due to the low pH. Digestion begins again in the small intestine when pancreatic ÃŽÂ ±-amylase is secreted. Starch is broken down into maltose, isomaltose, and maltotriose by ÃŽÂ ±-amylase through the hydrolysis of ÃŽÂ ±-1-4 glycosidic bonds. These products as well as any other disaccharides that were ingested must be further digested to their respective monosaccharide units by brush border enzymes (maltase, isomaltase, lactase, and sucrase) before absorption. Maltose is hydrolyzed to two glucose molecules by maltase. Isomaltose is hydrolyzed to two glucose molecules by isomaltase. Lactose is hydrolyzed to one molecule of glucose and one molecule of galactose by lactase. Sucrose is hydrolyzed to one molecule of fructose and one molecule of glucose by sucrase. After absorp tion, glucose, galactose, and fructose are transported to the liver via the portal blood. The liver can transform galactose and fructose into glucose (Gropper et al 2005). 1.1.3 REACTIONS OF BETA AMYLASE Starch + H2O in vitro breakdown of semicrystalline starch particles by beta-amylases increases significantly if they act together with glucan, water dikinase starch substrate of different sources, e.g. wheat, wheat bran, rice bran beta-amylase hydrolyzes alpha-1,4-linkage, raw starch granules from potato, wheat, rice and corn, with the granules from rice being the best substrate, beta-amylase attacks very slowly on the starch granules, hydrolyzes corn granules efficiently at 45 °C . Beta-amylase is an exo-enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the alpha-1,4-glucosidic linkage of the substrate liberating beta-maltose from the non-reducing end, Glu-172 and Glu-367 are catalytic residues, substrate recognition mechanism, enzyme structure beta-amylase is an inverting enzyme that hydrolyzes the alpha-1,4-glucosidic linkage of the substrate liberating beta-maltose from the non-reducing end, catalytic mechanism, Glu-172 acts as general acid, Glu-367 acts as general base catalyzes the hydrolysis of alpha-1,4-glucosidic linkages of soluble starch, and liberates beta-anomeric maltose from the nonreducing ends, exo-acting enzyme, composed of two functional domains, a catalytic domain: domains A and B, and starch-binding domain: domain C, beta-amylase has three carbohydrate-binding sites aside from the active site: two in domain B named Site2 and Site3, one in domain C named Site1, roles of these sites in the catalytic reaction and raw starch-binding, beta-amylase hardly h ydrolyzes raw starch from wheat, corn, potato or sweet potato, but binds to it strongly hydrolyzes the alpha-1,4-glucosidic linkage liberating beta-maltose from the non-reducing end of substrate, enzyme/domain structure, starch binding site in domain C, catalytic mechanism starch substrate of different sources, e.g. wheat, wheat bran, rice bran starch substrate of different sources. Beta-amylase hydrolyzes alpha-1,4-linkage, raw starch granules from potato, wheat, rice and corn, with the granules from rice being the best substrate, no efficient hydrolysis of raw starch granules, very slow enzymic attack catalyzes the release of maltose from soluble starch. Malbranchea sulfureastarch substrate of different sources, e.g. wheat, wheat bran, rice bran 106.9% of the activity with amylose, soluble starch, amylose and amylopectin are the most suitable substrates, some activity against native starch, exo-hydrolase that releases beta-maltose from the non-reducing end of alpha-1,4-linked poly- and oligoglucans until the first alpha-1,6-branching point along the substrate molecule is encountered, beta-amylase should be a key enzyme in starch degradation during the germination of millet seeds, enzyme activity increases during days 1-4 of germination starch substrate of different sources, e.g. wheat, wheat bran, rice bran best substrate, pure and low quality starches, maize starch, tapioca starch maltose is the major end product, traces of maltooligosaccharides, no glucose as product. Beta-amylase is involved in starch degradation during mango ripening, which is clearly triggered by detachment from the mother-plant starch enzyme induction upon a cold shock at 4 °C leads to starch-dependent maltose accumulation, which might be required for protection of the photosynthetic electron transport chain, maltose influences the carbohydrate metabolism. Of the components of starch, amylopectin presents the great challenge to hydrolytic enzyme systems. This is due to residues involved in 1,6-glycosidic branch points which constitute about 4-6% of the glucose present. Most hydrolytic enzyme are specific for 1,4-glycosidic links yet the 1,6-glycosidic links must also cleaved for complete hydrolysis of amylopectin to glucose. Some of the most impressive recent exercises in the development of new enzymes have concerned debranching enzymes. It is necessary to hydrolyse starch in a wide variety of processes which may be condensed into two basic classes; Processes in which the starch hydrolysate is to be used by microbes or man and processes in which it is necessary to eliminate starch. In the former processes, such as glucose syrup production, starch is usually the major component of reaction mixtures, whereas in the latter processes, such as the processing of sugar cane juice, small amounts of starch which contaminate non-starchy materials are removed. Enzymes of various types are used in these processes. Although starches from diverse plants may be utilized, corn is the worlds most abundant source and provides most of the substrate used in the preparation of starch hydrolysates. There are three stages in the conversion of starch Gelatinisation, involving the dissolution of the nanogram-sized starch granules to form a viscous suspension; Liquefaction, involving the partial hydrolysis of the starch, with concomitant loss in viscosity; and Saccharification, involving the production of glucose and maltose by further hydrolysis. Galatinisation is achieved by heating starch with water, and occurs necessarily and naturally when starchy foods are cooked. Gelatinized starch is readily liquefied by partial hydrolysis with enzymes or acids are saccharified by further acidic or enzymic hydrolysis (Chaplin,2004). USES OF AMYLASE Amylase enzyme finds use in bread making and to break down complex sugars such as starch (found in flour) into simple sugars. Yeast then feeds on these simple sugars and converts it into the waste products of alcohol and CO2. This imparts flavour and causes the bread to rise. While Amylase enzymes are found naturally in yeast cells, it takes time for the yeast to produce enough of these enzymes to break down significant quantities of starch in the bread. This is the reason for long fermented doughs such as sour dough. Modern bread making techniques have included amylase enzymes (often in the form of malted barley) into bread improver thereby making the bread making process faster and more practical for commercial use. When used as a food additive, and may be derived from swine pancreas or mould mushroom. Bacilliary amylase is also used in clothing and dishwasher detergents to dissolve starches from fabrics and dishes. Workers in factories that work with amylase for any of the above uses are at increased risk of occupational asthma. 5-9% of bakers have a positive skin test, and a fourth to a third of bakers with breathing problems are hypersensitive to amylase. An inhibitor of alpha-amylase called phaseolamin has been tested as a potential diet aid. Blood serum amylase may be measured for purposes of medical diagnosis. A normal concentration is in the range 21-101 Mol/L. A higher than normal concentration may reflect one of several medical conditions, including acute inflammation of the pancreas, macroamylasemia, perforated peptic ulcer, and mumps. Amylase may be measured in other body fluids, including urine and peritoneal fluid. Two amylases are common to the baking industry, alpha-amylase and beta-amylase also known as alpha-1,4-glucan glucanohydrolase and alpha-1,4-glucan maltohydrolase. Amylases convert starch into sugar : the ÃŽÂ ±-amylase will cleave the starch randomly (the so called 1-4 bonds in the starch) while the ÃŽÂ ²-amylase can only chop off two sugar units at the time at the end of the starch chain. Normally there is enough ÃŽÂ ²-amylase present in the flour but sometimes addition of ÃŽÂ ±-amylase is needed. The ÃŽÂ ±-amylase will cut the starch into smaller units called dextrins and the more ÃŽÂ ±-amylase activity there is, the better for the ÃŽÂ ²-amylase because there are more extremities available. So the substrate for the ÃŽÂ ²-amylase is either starch or dextrins and the product is maltose. Alpha-amylase is an endoenzyme that attacks linkages within the molecular structure. It randomly cleaves starch chains at interior a-1,4-glycosidic linkages producing short chains of glucose molecules or dextrins. Beta-amylase is an exoenzyme and cleaves maltose units from the non-reducing end of the starch molecule. In order for these enzymes to function, the starch granule must be ruptured so that the individual starch molecules are available for enzymatic action. Depending upon their origin, alpha- and beta-amylases show differences in pH and temperature optima, thermostability, and other chemical stability. They do not require co-enzymes for activity, although alpha-amylase activity is enhanced by the presence of calcium. The pH optimum for alpha-amylase is 4.5 and it is inactivated at a pH of 3.3 to 4.0. This pH dependence decreases the efficacy of this enzyme in sour doughs. Beta-amylase is active across a much broader pH range, 4.5-9.2, with a pH optimum of 5.3. Alpha-amylase is relatively thermostable up to 70 °C, whereas beta-amylase loses about half of its activity at this temperature. Fungal amylase is the least temperature stable, followed by cereal amylase, while bacterial amylase is stable at higher temperatures. New intermediate stability enzymes have been developed that are active above the gelatinization temperature of starch (60 °C), but are totally inactivated at the later stages of baking (80-90 °C). The objective is to maximize the anti-staling effect without creating a gummy, sticky product. INHIBITORS OF AMYLASE ACTIVITY Amylase inhibitors are naturally present in many plants and protect the plant from pests by not allowing the insect to break down starch and gain energy from it. Plants may contain separate protease inhibitors as well or amylase inhibitors may play a dual role and also inhibit proteases. Protein amylase inhibitors as well as non-protein amylase inhibitors exist. Amylase inhibitors may be active against a wide variety of amylases or may be specific to certain insect amylases or mammalian amylases (Franco, et al 2002). Structure of Proteinaceous Amylase Inhibitors The determination of the structure of a complex between porcine pancreatic amylase  and a protein amylase inhibitor isolated from bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) showed interaction between the pancreatic amylase active site and the inhibitor. Conformational changes were observed in the pancreatic amylase upon the binding of the inhibitor. The inhibitor was found to be a dimer with a disaccharide attached to one of the amino acid residues.  (Bompard G., et al, 1996). Amylase Inhibitors in yam tuber (Shivaraj, et al,. 1979) reported that sweet potatoes do not contain amylase  inhibitors while (Rekha, et al,1999) reported the presence of amylase inhibitors in 79 of  the 100 varieties tested. Cultivar differences as well as isolation procedure could account for  these differing results. Before performing amylase inhibitor assays, Shivaraj and others  homogenized sweet potato with water, allowed the samples to sit for 1 hour, centrifuged the  samples, collected the supernatant, and then subjected the supernatant to heat treatment  (80 °C for 10 minutes) to destroy native amylases. Rekha and others homogenized yam tuber in a sodium phosphate buffer containing polyvinyl pyrrolidone and sodium chloride,  stored the samples in the refrigerator, centrifuged the samples, and then performed  trichloroacetic acid precipitation to remove native amylases. Rekha and others chose to use  TCA precipitation rather than the heat treatment Shivaraj found heat treatment to be in effective at destroying all native amylase activity. YAM Yam is the common name for some species in the genus Dioscorea (family Dioscoreaceae). These are perennial herbaceous vines cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania. There are many cultivars of yam. Yam (Dioscorea spp., Dioscoreaceae) is classified as monocotyledonous but is considered to be closely related to dicotyledonous plants as a second cotyledon remains undeveloped in the embryo (Lawton and Lawton, 1967). The storage organ is probably a swollen hypocotyl (Lawton and Lawton, 1969), but is often described as a swollen root. A number of species are grown widely in the humid tropics with D. rotundata and D. cayenensis being of most importance, followed by D. alata and D. esculenta (Akoroda, 1993). These are all of African or East Asian origin, with only the minor species D. trifida being of American origin (Brà ¼cher, 1989). The tubers contain about 1-3  % protein on a dry weight basis (Coursey, 1995). Yam is source of carbohydrate; carbohydrates are one of the three major food groups needed for proper nutrition. Amylase is the digestive enzyme needed to digest carbohydrates. Carbohydrates in food are an important and immediate source of energy for the body. Starch refers to carbohydrates found in plants (grains). Vegetables and fruits are a source of sugar and are broken down to sugar or glucose. Carbohydrates are present in at least small quantities in most food, but the chief sources are the sugars are the sugars and the sugars and the starches (Wright, 1993) Uses of yam Food Yams of African species must be cooked to be safely eaten, because various natural substances in raw yams can cause illness if consumed. (Excessive skin contact with uncooked yam fluids can cause the skin to itch. If this occurs, a quick cold bath will stop the itching.) Yam is consumed in various ways, but is usually boiled and eaten. This involves cutting yam into pieces, then peeling the skin, and boiling the starchy meat. This is usually consumed with palm oil (traditional way), or with other sauces. The boiled yam can also be pounded with a traditional mortar and pestle to create a thick starchy paste known as Pounded Yam. This is also eaten with traditional stews and sauces. Another method of consumption is to sun dry the raw yam pieces. When dry, the pieces turn a dark brown color. This is then milled to create a powder known as elubo in Nigeria. The brown powder can be prepared with boiling water to create a thick brown starchy paste known as amala. This is also consumed with the local stews and sauces. The most common cooking method in Western and Central Africa is cooked boiled yam. (Wikipedia 2003). In India this vegetable is also called Garadu. In central part of India people cut small slices of the vegetable, deep fry them, sprinkle lots of spices on it and eat as snacks. In southern part of India, it is eaten with fish curry and is a local favorite.(Wikipedia 2003) 1.2 TYPES OF YAM Dioscorea rotundata and D. cayenensis Dioscorea rotunda, the white yam, and Dioscorea cayenensis, the yellow yam, are native to Africa. They are the most important cultivated yams. In the past they were considered two separate species but most taxonomists now regard them as the same species. There are over 200 cultivated varieties between them. The Kokoro variety is important in making dried yam chips. They are large plants; the vines can be as long as 10 to 12 meters (35 to 40 feet). The tubers most often weigh about 2.5 to 5  kg (6 to 12 lbs) each but can weigh as much as 25  kg (60 lbs). After 7 to 12 months growth the tubers are harvested. In Africa most are pounded into a paste to make the traditional dish of pounded yam (Kay 1987). Dioscorea alata A piece of cake made with Ube (water yam).Dioscorea alata, called water yam, winged yam and purple yam, was first cultivated in Southeast Asia. Although not grown in the same quantities as the African yams, it has the largest distribution world-wide of any cultivated yam, being grown in Asia, the Pacific islands, Africa, and the West Indies (Mignouna 2003). In the United States it has become an invasive species in some Southern states. In the Philippines it is known as ube (or ubi) and is used as an ingredient in many sweet desserts. In Vietnam, it is called khoai mà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¡ and is used mainly as an ingredient for soup. In India, it is known as ratalu or violet yam. In Hawaii it is known as uhi. Uhi was brought to Hawaii by the early Polynesian settlers and became a major crop in the 1800s when the tubers were sold to visiting ships as an easily stored food supply for their voyages (White 2003). Dioscorea opposita Dioscorea opposita, Chinese yam, is native to China. The Chinese yam plant is somewhat smaller than the African, with the vines about 3 meters (10 feet) long. It is tolerant to frost and can be grown in much cooler conditions than other yams. It is now grown in China, Korea, and Japan. It was introduced to Europe in the 1800s when the potato crop there was falling victim to disease, and is still grown in France for the Asian food market. The tubers are harvested after about 6 months of growth. Some are eaten right after harvesting and some are used as ingredients for other dishes, including noodles, and for traditional medicines (Kay 1987).Air potato Dioscorea bulbifera Dioscorea bulbifera, the air potato, is found in both Africa and Asia, with slight differences between those found in each place. It is a large vine, 6 meters (20 ft) or more in length. It produces tubers; however the bulbils which grow at the base of its leaves are the more important food product. They are about the size of potatoes (hence the name air potato), weighing from 0.5 to 2  kg (1 to 5 lbs). Some varieties can be eaten raw while some require soaking or boiling for detoxification before eating. It is not grown much commercially since the flavor of other yams is preferred by most people. However it is popular in home vegetable gardens because it produces a crop after only four months of growth and continues producing for the life of the vine, as long as two years. Also the bulbils are easy to harvest and cook (Kay 1987). In 1905 the air potato was introduced to Florida and has since become an invasive species in much of the state. Its rapid growth crowds out native vegetation and is very difficult to remove since it can grow back from the tubers, and new vines can grow from the bulbils even after being cut down or burned (Schultz 1993). Dioscorea esculenta Dioscorea esculenta, the lesser yam, was one of the first yam species cultivated. It is native to Southeast Asia and is the third most commonly cultivated species there, although it is cultivated very little in other parts of the world. Its vines seldom reach more than 3 meters (10 feet) in length and the tubers are fairly small in most varieties. The tubers are eaten baked, boiled, or fried much like potatoes. Because of the small size of the tubers, mechanical cultivation is possible; which, along with its easy preparation and good flavor, could help the lesser yam to become more popular in the future (Kay 1987). Dioscorea trifida Dioscorea trifida, the cush-cush yam, is native to the Guyana region of South America and is the most important cultivated New World yam. Since they originated in tropical rain forest conditions their growth cycle is less related to seasonal changes than other yams. Because of their relative ease of cultivation and their good flavor they are considered to have a great potential for increased production (Kay 1987). Dioscorea dumetorum Dioscorea dumetorum, the bitter yam, is popular as a vegetable in parts of West Africa; one reason being that their cultivation requires less labor than other yams. The wild forms are very toxic and are sometimes used to poison animals when mixed with bait. It is said that they have also been used for criminal purposes (Kay 1987). 1.3 Nutritional value Yams are high in vitamin C, dietary fiber, vitamin B6, potassium, and manganese; while being low in saturated fat and sodium. Vitamin C, dietary fiber and vitamin B6 may all promote good health. Furthermore, a product that is high in potassium and low in sodium is likely to produce a good potassium-sodium balance in the human body, and so protect against osteoporosis and heart disease. Yam products generally have a lower glycemic index than potato products, which means that they will provide a more sustained form of energy, and give better protection against obesity and diabetes. Aim and objective The objective of this experiment is to extract the amylases mainly ÃŽÂ ²-amylase from yam tuber and determine the enzymatic activities of the enzymes. At the end of the experiment, the amylase extracted from yam tuber can be made use of in the industries like; the pharmaceutical, plastic and textile industries among others in place of barley commonly made used of. This is even favorable considering the land mass covered by yam and also large usefulness of the yam. CHAPTER TWO 2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 MATERIALS Yam (Dioscoreaceae esculenta),used was from Oja Oba Market in Iwo Osun State, Ethanol, Soluble starch, 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid, sodium hydroxide, sodium potassium tertarate, Sephadex G200 was obtained from Pharmacia fine chemicals, Uppsala, Sweden, disodium hydrogen phosphate were products of British Drug House(BDH), poole England. The distilled water was obtained from the Department of Biochemistry, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife. 2.2 EQUIPMENTS Water incubator manufactured by Grant Instruments(Cambridge) Ltd, Weighing balance made in Switzerland, Centrifuge manufactured by microfield instruments England. Spectrophotometer. 2.2 Preparation of buffer and Reagents 2.2.1 preparation of 0.016 M sodium acetate buffer, pH 4.8 To prepare acetate buffer for, 73.10 g of sodium acetate was dissolved in 900 ml of distilled water, 4.2 ml of acetic acid was added and then made up to 1 Litre in volumetric flask. 2.2.2 Preparation of 2 N sodium hydroxide To 8 g of sodium hydroxide pellets was dissolved in 100ml of distilled water. 2.2.3 Preparation of colour reagent Dinitrosalicyclic acid colour reagent, was prepared by dissolving 1.0 g of 3,5-dinitrosalicyclic acid in 50 ml of distilled water. 30.0 g sodium potassium tartrate tetrahydrate was added slowly with 20 ml of 2N sodium hydroxide. It was diluted to 100 ml with distilled water. 2.2.4 Preparation of 1% starch Prepared by dissolving 1.0 g of soluble starch in 100 ml of 0.016 M sodium acetate buffer pH 4.8. It was boiled to dissolve and cooled, diluted to 100ml with distilled water. 2.3 Method The rate at which maltose is released from starch is measured by its ability to reduce 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid according to Bernfold(1955) . One unit releases one micromole of ÃŽÂ ²-maltose per minutes at 25ËÅ ¡C and pH 4.8 under the specified conditions. 2.3.1 Mashing and Extraction of Enzymes With the use of mortar and pestle, 434.52 g of yam were ground and 400ml of homogenization buffer (i.e 0.016 M sodium acetate pH) was added and stirred, it was kept in a refrigerator for 1 hour with intermittent stirring at 10 minutes interval. It was then centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 10 minutes into components. Assay for protein and enzyme activity was then carried out after it has being stored in 70% of ammonium sulphate(212.4 g/L). 2.3.2 Purification Purification of ÃŽÂ ²-amylase: All enzymes purification steps were carried out at room temperature. Enzyme Precipitation: The crude extract was initially fractioned by 70% (v/v) ammonium sulphate. After centrifugation at 4000 rpm for 10 minutes, the precipitated pellets were collected and re-suspended in of cold buffer. The solution was dissolved in 0.016 M sodium acetate buffer of pH 4.8 and layered on a Sephadex G-200 Colum (1 x 40 cm). Fractions of 5 ml were collected. The fraction was monitored for protein at 280 nM. Elution was in 0.016 M sodium acetate buffer, pH4.8.

Clothing and Gender in Virginia Woolfs Orlando Essay -- Virginia Wool

Clothing and Gender in Virginia Woolf's Orlando In her novel Orlando, Virginia Woolf tells the story of a man who one night mysteriously becomes a woman. By shrouding Orlando's actual gender change in a mysterious religious rite, we readers are pressured to not question the actual mechanics of the change but rather to focus on its consequences. In doing this, we are invited to answer one of the fundamental questions of our lives, a question that we so often ignore because it seems so very basic - what is a man? What is a woman? And how do we distinguish between the two? It seems that in ordinary life, we are most likely to distinguish between a man and a woman by clothing. This is more difficult to do in the present day, in which women have adapted much traditionally male clothing for their own use, but in the time periods in which Orlando is set it was still the case that men and women wore distinct clothing. If we consider our everyday experience, it becomes clear that this is the means we use, at least from a distance. Other cues such as hairstyle, quality of voice, and so on enter the equation later, but clothing comes first. A man with long hair is eccentric at worst; a man wearing a dress runs the risk of being beaten to a pulp for this transgression. People wishing to undergo a sex-change operation must undergo a period of living as the opposite gender before going through with surgery - the first and most important thing invariably done here is to purchase a new wardrobe. So, if clothes are the cues that we use to differentiate the two genders, then it is no surprise that Orlando's sex change takes place when it does. In the opening paragraph of Chapter Four, upon Orlando's departure from Turkey, Woolf writes... ...ch woman when in fact it is not very clear what she is. Woolf posits that her choice of clothing points to something deeper: "Clothes are but a symbol of something deep beneath. It was a change in Orlando herself that dictated her choice of a woman's dress and of a woman's sex" (188). If only it were possible for us to change our genders and all the social baggage that comes with them merely by changing our clothing? But Orlando's life is in some ways magical, and this makes it possible. Works Cited and Consulted Boehm, Beth A. "Fact, Fiction, and Metafiction: Blurred Gen(d)res in Orlando and A Room of One's Own." Journal of Narrative Technique 22:3 (1992): 191-204. Thompson, Nicola. "Some Theories of One's Own: Orlando and the Novel." Studies in the Novel 25:3 (1993): 306-17. Woolf, Virginia. Orlando: A Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Clothing and Gender in Virginia Woolf's Orlando Essay -- Virginia Wool Clothing and Gender in Virginia Woolf's Orlando In her novel Orlando, Virginia Woolf tells the story of a man who one night mysteriously becomes a woman. By shrouding Orlando's actual gender change in a mysterious religious rite, we readers are pressured to not question the actual mechanics of the change but rather to focus on its consequences. In doing this, we are invited to answer one of the fundamental questions of our lives, a question that we so often ignore because it seems so very basic - what is a man? What is a woman? And how do we distinguish between the two? It seems that in ordinary life, we are most likely to distinguish between a man and a woman by clothing. This is more difficult to do in the present day, in which women have adapted much traditionally male clothing for their own use, but in the time periods in which Orlando is set it was still the case that men and women wore distinct clothing. If we consider our everyday experience, it becomes clear that this is the means we use, at least from a distance. Other cues such as hairstyle, quality of voice, and so on enter the equation later, but clothing comes first. A man with long hair is eccentric at worst; a man wearing a dress runs the risk of being beaten to a pulp for this transgression. People wishing to undergo a sex-change operation must undergo a period of living as the opposite gender before going through with surgery - the first and most important thing invariably done here is to purchase a new wardrobe. So, if clothes are the cues that we use to differentiate the two genders, then it is no surprise that Orlando's sex change takes place when it does. In the opening paragraph of Chapter Four, upon Orlando's departure from Turkey, Woolf writes... ...ch woman when in fact it is not very clear what she is. Woolf posits that her choice of clothing points to something deeper: "Clothes are but a symbol of something deep beneath. It was a change in Orlando herself that dictated her choice of a woman's dress and of a woman's sex" (188). If only it were possible for us to change our genders and all the social baggage that comes with them merely by changing our clothing? But Orlando's life is in some ways magical, and this makes it possible. Works Cited and Consulted Boehm, Beth A. "Fact, Fiction, and Metafiction: Blurred Gen(d)res in Orlando and A Room of One's Own." Journal of Narrative Technique 22:3 (1992): 191-204. Thompson, Nicola. "Some Theories of One's Own: Orlando and the Novel." Studies in the Novel 25:3 (1993): 306-17. Woolf, Virginia. Orlando: A Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Determinism, Objectivity, and Pessimism in The Open Boat :: Open Boat Essays

Determinism, Objectivity, and Pessimism in The Open Boat      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Stephen Crane's short story "The Open Boat", the American literary school of naturalism is used and three of the eight features are most apparent, making this work, in my opinion, a good example of the school of naturalism. These three of the eight features are determinism, objectivity, and pessimism. They show, some more than others, how Stephen Crane viewed the world and the environment around him.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Determinism is of course the most obvious of the three features. Throughout the entire story, the reader gets a sense that the fate of   the four main characters, the cook, the oiler, the correspondent, and the captain are totally pre-determined by nature and that they were not their own moral agents. "The little boat, lifted by each towering sea and splashed viciously by the crests, made progress that in the absence of seaweed was not apparent to those in her." The characters had no control over their boat, rather nature was totally in control. "She seemed just a wee thing wallowing, miraculously top up, at the mercy of the five oceans. Occasionally a great spread of water, like white flames, swarmed into her." (pg.145) There is also a sense that man is totally not important to the natural forces controlling his fate. "When it occurs to man that nature does not regard him as important, and that she feels she would not maim the universe by disposing of him, he at first wishes to throw bricks at the temple, and he hates deeply that there are no bricks and no temples." (pg156) The one character who perishes, the oiler, is of course a victim of determinism. Even as he was so close to land and no longer out in the open sea, nature still takes its role in determining his fate.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Objectivity refers to how the author describes reality as it exists, that is, not glorifying something, but rather simply stating the observation. The fact that the narrator is the correspondent in itself give an impression on how the story is going to be told in a more journalistic sense, describing actual events instead of feelings or ideas. " In the meantime the oiler and the correspondent rowed. They sat together in the same seat, and each rowed an oar.

Billy Sunday Essay -- Essays Papers

Billy Sunday For almost a quarter century Billy Sunday was a household name in the United States. Between 1902 when he first made the pages of the New York Times and 1935 when the paper covered his death and memorial service in detail, people who knew anything about current events had heard of the former major league baseball player who was preaching sin and salvation to large crowds all over America. Not everyone who knew of the famous evangelist liked him. Plenty of outspoken critics spoke of his flashy style and criticized his conservative doctrines. But he had hundreds of thousands, perhaps millions, of loyal defenders, and they were just as loud in their praise as the critics were in their criticism. Whether people stood for or against the Reverend William A. Sunday, they all agreed that it was difficult to be indifferent toward him. The religious leader was so extraordinarily popular, opinionated, and vocal that indifference was the last thing that he would get from people. His most loyal admirers were confident that this rural-breed preacher was God’s mouthpiece, calling Americans to repentance. Sunday’s critics said that at best he was a well-meaning buffoon whose sermons vulgarized and trivialized the Christian message and at worst he was a disgrace to the name of Christ (Dorsett 2). There are elements of truth in both of these views. He was often guilty of oversimplifying biblical truths, and at times he spoke more out of ignorance than a heavenly viewpoint. He was also a man with numerous flaws. He spoiled his children, giving them everything that they asked for. He put enormous responsibility on his wife, burdening her with many aspects of his ministry. He always noticeably sought the applause of the crowd for his own praise. He often confused the will of God with his own social and political agenda. He even sometimes compared the gospel of Jesus Christ with special interest and American foreign policy. Nevertheless, Billy Sunday was a sincere man whose life was fundamentally changed by his response to an evangelist’s call to repent of his sins, to believe that Jesus Christ died in his place for those sins, and to follow Christ in thanksgiving by worshiping and obeying him. Following this spiritual rebirth, the convert became deeply devoted to Jesus Christ. A devotion manifested in living out many of ... ...ee baseball seasons stood up at the street preacher’s invitation and abruptly announced to his teammates on the curb, â€Å"Boys I bid the old life good-bye.† Billy considered going down during the invitation but did not. After several days of agonizing over this Billy went back to the mission and decided, â€Å"With Christ you are saved, without him you are lost† (Sunday â€Å"Satan† 4). He â€Å"committed† his life that night to a cause that he saw was more important than any baseball game ever played. Despite becoming largely famous after being traded to Philadelphia, it would be the results of that decision at the Pacific Garden Mission that the world would remember Billy Sunday for. Some applauded Sunday and his methods; others did not. But there is no question that Sunday’s sensational career was a phenomenon Americans would not soon forget. Works Cited Dorsett, Lyle W. Billy Sunday and the Redemption of Urban America. Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans Pub, 1991. Ellis, William T. Billy Sunday: The Man and His Message. n.p., 1914. Sunday, Billy. Billy Sunday’s Sermons. Omaha: Omaha Daily News, 1915. Sunday, Billy. Face to Face With Satan. Knoxville: Prudential Pub, 1923.

Disco Music

Matt Crane 8-19-06 Music Back in the late 1960s, disco originated as a combination of many instruments played together. It was in 1969 when Jerry Butler released his latest song ‘Only the Strong Survive’ that we got our very first disco song. This was the birth of disco but then it was a form of music which hadn’t been named. Four years and many songs later on the 13th of September 1973, Vince Aletti wrote an article in the Rolling Stone Magazine which gave this music form its name â€Å"DISCO†.This soulful music is based on a number of instruments blended together to get what is known as the disco sound. The vocals are played on a steady four on the floor beat or what is known as a quaver (eighth note) or a semi- quaver (sixteenth note). Many electronic musical gadgets are used to create the background score. This form of music has more of electric bass line and the guitar is seldom used as a lead instrument. Films like Saturday Night Fever and Thank God I ts Friday made disco theque more popular than ever before.It was the Bee Gees who came to represent real Disco theque. The group till then was famous for their ballads and pop songs challenging the supremacy of The Beatles. Their success numbers were released again on the Saturday Night Fever movie soundtrack. Disco was born much earlier in the late 60’s when Jerry Butleras haunting melody was the first case of a combination of music with dance. This particular song brought about the marriage between Philly and New York soul both being evolutions of Motown Sound. The Philly sound is lavish percussion. 972 Soul Makasso is said to be one of the first disco songs. Disco spread to Europe through the jivings of Abba from the mid 70’s. Boney-M was another group of four West Indian singers and dancers who guided by West German record producer Frank Farian, soon became a great hit in Canada and Japan. The latter half of the 70’s saw clubs reverberating with Disco music. The culture centered on discotheques, nightclubs, and private parties where DJ’s played disco hits through power sound systems. Long single records kept people dancing throughout the night.Even some of the most prestigious clubs matched their lighting arrangements to swish to the beat of Disco theque. Dancing schools sprung up in some cities and candidates were taught how to touch dance hustle and cha-cha. Disco fashions then hit the market with Halston dresses for women, shiny Qiana shirts for men pointed collars and open at the chest worn with double knit jacket suits. Disco culture soon became a shelter for those on the fringes of society they found a way to express themselves. Disco managed to fulfill one of the objectives of the Civil Rights movement.It brought the races closer together for the first time where Blacks & Whites â€Å"co-mingled† freely. Although â€Å"disco's† did in fact lead to the downfall of the â€Å"inner city Funk House† a nd while a few of them practiced â€Å"racist door policies†. For the most part you could get in, dance and socialize across racial barriers. Disco was in fact one of the first forms of â€Å"voluntary integration† that American’s have seen. The music was the same & every ones attitude was the same. Different instruments and disco sounds made their way into the hearts of people in a big way.Discos became a place where there would be loud disco music, a dance floor with disco lights and of course you disco lovers dressed in the latest disco outfits having a blast of a life time. Discos have a culture of their own. The music is loud enough to make you and your heart beat a little faster. The lights keep changing colors and also help in changing you moods and shedding any inhibition you have. The clothes too are tight fitting to show off your more of the body. Shirts with slightly long and pointy collars, the Qiana shirts for the gents and the Halston dresses f or women were in fashion.Discos brought in many other cultures too. One of the main addictions that disco brought in was drugs. Cocaine and Quaalude became the main drugs for all disco lovers. While cocaine gave them a high spirit, it helped many to enjoy the loud music better. Quaalude made them feel light like jelly and helped them to move to the groove. The dance lovers enjoyed the discotheques, as there was music, dance, alcohol and fun. Discos became very popular and some of them became as popular as tourist sites too. Manhattans Studio 54 is one such place.You couldn’t miss this hangout, as you would see many celebrities and people who are both rich and famous there. In the 1970s and 80s disco and dance came together and were the craze of the time. Groups like The Jackson Five, ABBA and The BEE GEES are still bands which are famous for their great disco music. Disco, which was performed only by a few bands in the beginning spread like a forest fire. Soon disco became ma instream and all kinds of bands were performing disco numbers. Disco was the in thing and a lot of movies were made on the disco theme too.Saturday night fever starring John Travolta and Thank God It’s Friday were two big hits with disco as its mainstream idea. ABBA was a group, which took Disco beyond the borders of America and right into Europe and Asia. The songs were such big chart busters that all over the world they created many new records. Boney M a group of four West Indian singers were another group, which broke the barriers of caste, color and creed to give pure and outstanding disco music. Dalida released their hit number â€Å"J’attendrai† which topped the charts in Japan, middle and south Asia and Canada These groups made disco very popular in the 70’s.The growing craze for disco angered the fans of rock music. While some just threw out all disco records, a few took drastic steps. DJs of rock music held events like the Disco Demolition night . Many groups came together to stage anti-disco demonstrations. Slowly but steadily in the 1980s disco began to die down. Though disco kind of became obsolete but it was still very much a part of the night life in Europe. With newer forms of music and even newer groups emerging Disco was given a back seat. In 1990s and 2000 once again disco began gaining popularity again.With major singers like Madonna, Kate Ryan and Suzanne Palmer performing Disco. Disco sound is mainly based on strings and horns accompanied by reverberating vocals mixing with electric pianos and chicken-scratch guitars. Dramatic minor and major seventh chords dominate disco music. The other instruments in used are bass guitar, piano, string synth with electrocoustic keyboards. There are drum kits and electronic drums together with harp, violin, viola, trumpet, saxophone, trombone, clarinet, flugelhorn, French horn, tuba, English horn, oboe, flute and piccolo.The songs usually have a steady four-on-the floor beat. It has affinity with Dominican meringue, rumba, samba and cha-cha-cha rhythms. A synthesizer is sometimes used to replace the bass guitar. Disco branched off into regional styles during the mid70’s by many formal musicians. Keeping the same broad traits of disco the new types came to get an individual stamp of the singer and the orchestra. Notable among them were The Philadelphia Symphony Orchestra and New York Philharmonic. Disco thus came to be arranged and composed by experienced arrangers and orchestrators. It required large number of instruments and a eam, which included the conductor, copyists, record producers and mixing engineer. Disco songs used as many as 64 tracks of vocals and instrumentals. Mixing engineers thus had a very important role. They created a distinctive sounding known as disco-mix. DJ’s were important for popularizing disco and consequently its sales. I would say that disco music expresses itself by its fast beats that you dance to. Its music g ets people to be all about partying, loosing yourself to the songs, and feeling good. It lets people â€Å"groove† or â€Å"Boogie down†, just dance the night away.It’s the art of arranging sounds in time so as to produce a continuous, unified, and evocative composition, as through melody, harmony, rhythm, and timbre. To me disco music means, music that consists of several different instruments that make all sorts of rhythms and melodies. It’s a type of music that has a fast beat and just makes you want to dance. With disco music all you want to do is get down on a dance floor with a lot of people and just feeling good. Disco music is a good style of music that puts different sounds in one through the melody and rhythm of the song.

Herbal Medicine

Being a part of alternative medicine, herbalism is often opposed to orthodox medicine. I believe that herbalism can make a good competition to conventional medicine as it has not only a set of methods to cure people, but also a developed philosophical and cultural background, which makes it a complicated system. Herbal Medicine is a medial system, which helps to maintain good health and prevent illnesses.Herbal   practitioners state that good health is much more than an absence of disease. Normal functioning of the body and good work of all systems and organs of an organism is the main and ultimate goal of alternative medicine. History of Herbal Medicine The history of herbalism counts more than five hundred years. Western herbal medicine was founded about 5000 years ago. Since ancient times humans used herbs for food, medicine and making clothes. The term â€Å"herb† is usually used to speak about the plant which is used for medical purposes. So called â€Å"herbs† have been used for centuries to treat people from different diseases. Archaeologists stay that herbs have been used by humans since the Middle Paleolithic era, which is dated more than 61,000 years ago. (Butterfield) Herbal remedies were used in Egypt, Greece, Rome and Middle East. Columbus and other travelers who succeeded him brought a lot of new herbal remedies to Europe. Herbal remedies became especially popular during the era of Henry VIII. A new science, which combined the use of herbs and astrology, was developed during his rule. Herbal medicine was used for centuries and modern medicine did not appear until the end of the Second World War. Technological development made it possible to produce synthetic drugs, which gradually replaced herbal remedies. Nowadays herbal plants become more and more popular. People start realizing that reducing pain symptoms is not enough to cure illness. Herbal medicine is able to give them alternative to orthodox medicine, which treats only symptoms but not the causes of the illnesses. Nowadays there is a separate branch of herbalism called pharmacognosy. This science is preoccupied with the study of drugs produced from plants and animals. There are a lot of sources from which people obtain knowledge about the characteristics of different plants. â€Å"Much herbal knowledge is obtained through attentive empirical observation of a plant's effects on humans. In some traditions, intuition and sacred teachings are important. Many traditional herbalists believe in a ‘life force' that is yet to be fully understood. † (Mysteriously, 119) In addition by mystical approach, modern science gives rational explanations of different components, which create a healing effect of herbs. Only specialists know that a lot of modern medicines used in pharmacology originally derived from plants. Components, which are used to produce synthetic medicaments, derive from natural products. For example, aspirin was originally produced from the bark of willow tree and morphine is achieved from poppy. Most herbs used in herbal medicine have well-studied and explained peculiarities, which explain their curing effect. Old art of herbal treating is almost forgotten now and synthetic drugs have replaced natural products but people start remembering about the positive effect of herbal treatment and it becomes more and more popular in the modern world. Scientific study gives additional reasons to make confidence in alternative medicine in general and herbalism   in particular. Scientists continue to uncover new qualities of herbs, which give additional opportunities in the sphere of medicine. â€Å"In 1993, the British medical journal Lancet reported that in tests conducted in both Germany and Italy, extracts from the ancient Chinese ginkgo tree were successful in treating cerebral insufficiency in older patients. As a remedy that improves the circulation of blood to the head, it is able to help the memory of elderly people. † (Bruno) Ancient people, who could cure practically any disease with the help of herbs possessed knowledge practically lost nowadays. Latest statistics shows that interest to herbal treatment has increased during resent time. People are looking for the ways to be healthy and holistic approach used by herbal medicine appeals to many of them. Herbalism as a Part of Alternative Medicine Usually herbal remedies are used by the practitioners of so called holistic medicine, who believe that there is inner force inside of each human being and this force can help to maintain physical and mental health. Despite the practitioners of holistic medicine do not reject germ theory of illness applied in traditional medicine, they state that this theory does not give convincing explanations about the reasons of illnesses. As states Leonard Bruno in his article Western Herbal Remedies:   â€Å"They argue that many diseases and conditions come about because the individual's inner force or natural immune system is weakened or out of balance. Therefore, they prescribe herbal or plant remedies that are found in nature in order to return an individual's natural inner balance, strengthen the resistance to disease, and maintain good health. † (Bruno) Herbalists use a plant as a whole to treat their patients. In contrast to conventional medicine, where healing characteristics of medicines are based on single chemical constituents, herbal specialists use plants. Each plant provides a unique combination of elements and curing effect is achieved by this unique combination. Herbalists believe that even if we take a combination of all components, which constitute one plant, they will not be as effective as same components, which are found in this plant. So called â€Å"whole plant† philosophy is based on the idea that plant is much more than a sum of its components. Each plant consists of hundreds of different elements and their combination is unique for each plant. This combination gives plant its unique characteristics, which are used in herbal medicine. An effect, created by the sum of components and elements contained in the planed is called synergism. This peculiarity of herbal medicine becomes a subject of controversy because it is not accepted by conventionally trained professionals. The list of active constituents can not serve as an explanation of curing effects of herbal medicines. Herbal remedies influence human body in same chemical manner as synthetic drugs do. From the other side there are several distinctions, which make an effect of herbal medicines and synthetic drugs on organism different. Herbal medicines consist of difficult combination of different elements and these elements affect several organs. These elements get to blood by indirect ways that is why their effect can be not as quick as the one of synthetic medicines but it will definitely be more extensive. Herbs generally make a complex pharmaceutical system. They contain vitamins, minerals, trace elements of different oils, alkaloids, tannins and many other elements. Complexity of effects herbs have on human organism can be traced on different examples. For example, both, tea and coffee contain practically similar dozes of caffeine but everybody knows that coffee usually has stronger stimulating effect. This effect can be explained by big quantity of tannin, contained in tea. Tannin prevents caffeine from absorbing and this reduces   tea’s stimulating effect. (Holmes, 118)  Ã‚   Another example is a comparison of synthetic antibiotics and garlic. Garlic is known as one of the best natural antibiotics but its action is based in principles, which differ from the action of antibiotics. Antibiotics kill bacteria and stop illness. But they kill all kinds of bacteria, including ones which are necessary for good functioning of an organism. In contrast to synthetic antibiotics, garlic does not kill bacteria useful for organism and even vice versa, stimulates them. Since herbal treatment is based on holistic approach qualified herbalist starts his treatment with long interview with a patient. His interview sometimes covers different spheres of client’s life because in alternative medicine physical health is not separated from mental and emotional state. Latest researches prove that a lot of illnesses have psychosomatic nature and that is why it is not enough to treat only physical side of the problem. The cause of the problem, which causes an illness, can sometimes differ from a diagnosis made by mainstream professionals. Special diet and exercising can be added to the course of herbal treatment in order to improve the result. Peculiarities of Herbal Medicine Herbal treatment can be used for treating practically all known diseases and in the most cases herbs can replace synthetic drugs used in conventional medicine. Effectiveness of herbs is proved by multiple investigations. Herbal remedies are used for different purposes. They can improve digestion, stimulate respiratory and circulatory systems of organism. Other kinds of herbal remedies are used to improve the functioning of nervous and endocrine systems. Stimulating these systems helps to strengthen immune system. Herbs perfectly remove toxins from organism. Usually herbs are classified   according to the sphere of their use. Some herbs are used to stimulate nervous activity, other have antiseptic action and are used to treat infections. Medical use of herbs is diverse. Herbs are used to make oils, infusions, tinctures, and salves. There are several ways of herbal administration. Herbs can be drunk, others are used for external treatment only. There are special herbal capsules. Mainstream physicians rarely prescribe herbal treatment and those, who want to be treated with the help of herbs should find qualified herbalist of naturopathic physician. Unfortunately, insurance companies very rarely cover the cost of herbal treatment. This kind of treatment can be covered only in the cases when herbal treatment is prescribed by mainstream physician. Herbalism vs. Conventional Medicine Conventional medicine is often opposed to herbalism. There are several key differences, which differ these two systems. Despite orthodox medicine is a dominating medical system there are a lot of people who turn to alternative methods, including herbal remedies. There are several factors, which explain this phenomenon. First of all orthodox medicine shows its failure. There are a lot of cases when synthetic drugs can not help people. As states Williams, â€Å"the vacuum created by the abandonment of nutrition by orthodox medicine, is directly responsible for nutrition becoming an alternative therapy. In other words, the so called food faddists and nutrition quacks so often complained about by the medical profession, owe their very existence and continued survival to orthodox medicine! Nature, as they say, abhors a vacuum. â€Å"(Williams, 112) Growing popularity of herbal medicine proves his thesis about the failing of orthodox medicine. The conflict between conventional and herbal medicine presents two different systems of believes. These two systems show two different approaches to human health. Representatives of orthodox medicine do not want any changes to occur. They do not recognize alternative medicine as a valid system of treating people. At the same time there are representatives of orthodox medicine, who use alternative methods as a supplementary means to their orthodox methods. In this case we meet a kind of controversy when orthodox specialists use separate holistic methods while rejecting holistic medicine in general. Conventional medicine does not use individual approach to each patient. In conventional medicine all similar symptoms are usually treated by same medicines. â€Å"Many patients feel alienated by their physicians, who do not always seem to treat them as individuals. This alienation is compounded by the often extreme costs of high-tech medicine. Further, many synthetic drugs have adverse side effects, or have been overused to the point of no longer being effective† (Bruno)   Modern herbalism is based on several principles. First of all its main goal is to optimize health and wellness. The accent in treatment is made on the state of the person as a whole, but not separate symptoms. Individual approach is one of main principles of   herbal medicine. Uniqueness of each individual is a main treasure in herbal medicine. Such an approach is contrasted to conventional medicine which uses standard approach to all patients. Conventional medicine uses a single drug to treat single disease. Herbal medicine treats each patient individually. Herbal specialists believe that similar symptoms of illnesses can be caused by different reasons and that is why they treat each person individually. Herbal medicine is based on the principle of fragile balance, which maintains our mind and body in healthy condition. When this balance is broken a disease starts. In this case disease is regarded as a signal about broken balance and that is why herbal medicine makes everything possible to renew the balance. Such an approach can not guarantee quick treating of all symptoms because all treatment is directed to renew balance. Specialists of herbal medicine believe that organism is able to cure itself as soon as its balance is renewed. As states Leonard Bruno â€Å"Thus the person who takes an herbal remedy should not always expect to see all symptoms disappear immediately, since the natural medicine is intended rather to support the body's systems. The proper functioning body will then remedy the symptoms† (Bruno) Holistic approach used in herbalism is contrasted to philosophy of reductionism, expressed by conventional medicine. Orthodox medicine aims to achieve the state of optimum health where people experience as little pain symptoms as possible. Holistic medicine derives from the notion of holism or balanced functioning of an organism, which becomes the main sours of healthy condition. As states Williams in his book Nutrition against Disease â€Å"Unlike reductionism, holism does not seek to fragment, or impose artificial limitations upon, human knowledge and learning. Rather than dissect the body into numerous separate and independent functional areas , it recognises the interdependence of our various bodily systems. †Ã‚   (Williams, 79) When speaking about dissecting the body into pieces, he definitely speaks about orthodox medicine, which does not regard human body as a one organic unity and treats each symptom and each organ separately. Merits and Demerits of Herbal Medicine Herbal remedies have a lot of advantages. First of all they are natural products, which have mild effect on human organism. Herbal medicines can be used to treat practically all illnesses. Along with positive sides, herbal medicine have some demerits. Herbal medicines do not have so quick effect as synthetic drugs do. Like it was mentioned before herbal medicines treat the causes of an illness, not its symptoms, that is why it can require longer course of treatment to treat all dysfunctions of an organism. People should be aware that using herbal and conventional medicines together without the doctor’s advice can be dangerous. Synthetic and herbal medicines can come in conflict and cause negative effect on human organism. Despite all advantages of herbal medicine and its good impact on human health it is necessary to remember about potential dangers when using herbs for medical purpose. The most toxic and dangerous medicines are produced from plants. Natural origin of herbal medication does not make them completely safe. There is a danger of misuse or overuse of medicines produced from plants. It is true that the most remedies produced from plants are safe but it is still necessary to address a doctor before using herbs as medicines. In addition there is danger of different reactions when herbal remedies are used together with conventional medicines. That is why each person must consult a herbalist before turning to herb treatment. Possible demerits of herbal medicines are fully compensated by positive sides of these remedies. In the most cases herbal remedies are not less effective than synthetic drugs but have much less side effects, if any. Most of conventional drugs have many side effects. Treating one symptom, they hurt other part of an organism. Natural remedies never or very seldom cause side effects. Herbal medicines can make an alternative to practically all synthetic drugs and using them people can escape negative effects of synthetic drugs. Natural remedies are especially suitable for children who are very sensitive to different chemical components. Herbalism becomes very popular among young parents, who try to use only natural products for their small children. Natural remedies can be used for people, who are allergic to synthetic drugs. Herbalism uses holistic approach, which helps to treat an organism as one whole and individual approach helps to choose treatment effective for each separate individual. That is the reason people turn to herbal medicines again. Conclusion Western history of medicine is mainly the history of herbal medicine and I am sure that herbalism will occupy deserved place in the future medical system. Since ancient times people used herbs to treat different diseases and it was hard to find any disease which could not have being cured with the help of herbal remedies. Herbal medicine went through the period of decline during the time after the Second World War. During this time synthetic drugs replaced herbs and people turned to so called conventional medicine. Nowadays the situation is changed again and people start using more and more herbal medicines. Latest research made by the World Health Organization states that more than 80 percent of people turn to herbal treatment in different forms and believe that it is an effective medical method. (Micozzi)   Dispute between herbal and conventional medicine lasts since the development of orthodox medicine and both sides have strong arguments to defend their positions. Herbal medicine is an effective system of treatment and prevention disease and scientific recognition it gets in the official world, is a good proof of its effectiveness. If we consider all reasons pro et contra herbal medicine, we will understand that it deserves to occupy a descent place in the modern world. May be it will not be able to replace orthodox medicine but it can be used as an alternative way of treatment in many cases. Lack of information about alternative types of treatment often deprives people of additional opportunities to choose treatments suitable for them. Works Cited Bruno C. Leonard â€Å"Herbal remedies, western†. Encyclopedia of Medicine. 20010406. FindArticles. com. 16 Mar. 2007. http://www. findarticles. com/p/articles/mi_g2601/is_0006/ai_2601000663 Butterfield, J. and Sexton, J. â€Å"New Remedies for Old Ills' USA Weekend, Dec 30, 1994-Jan 01, 1995. Helman, C. Culture, Health, and Illness, 3rd ed. Oxford: Butterworth Hellman, 1994. Holmes, P, The Energetics of Western Herbs, revised 3rd ed. , Vol. 1, Snow Lotus Press Inc. , Colorado, USA, 1997. . Holmes, P, Jade Remedies, A Chinese Herbal Reference for the West, Vol. 1, Snow Lotus Press Inc. , Colorado, USA, 1996. Micozzi, M. ed Fundamentals of Complementary and Alternative Medicine. New York:Churchill Livingston, 1996 Mysteriously, L. â€Å"Western Hebraism,† pp 111-120 in Fundamentals of Complementary and Alterative Medicine. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1996. Williams, R. J. , Nutrition Against Disease, Pitman Publishing Corp. , New York, USA, 1971. Shein-Chung Chow; Annpey Pong; Yu-Wei Chang On Traditional Chinese Medicine Clinical Trials Drug Information Journal; 2006; 40, 4; Health Module pg. 395